Review of Jian Xu’s "Body, Discourse, and the Cultural Politics of Contemporary Chinese Qigong"
Introduction
Jian Xu’s article, Body, Discourse, and the Cultural Politics of Contemporary Chinese Qigong, published in The Journal of Asian Studies (1999), explores the socio-political dimensions of Qigong in modern China. Xu situates Qigong as a contested space of ideological struggle, examining how its discourse oscillates between scientific rationalism and metaphysical mysticism. The article draws on historical analysis, discourse theory, and contemporary political developments to argue that Qigong serves as both a means of state control and individual resistance.
Historical Context and Conceptual Framework
Xu begins by positioning Qigong within the broader history of bodily cultivation in Asia, comparing it to other self-cultivation traditions such as Indian yoga, Japanese karate, and Chinese Taijiquan. He highlights how these traditions are often co-opted into nationalistic discourses that either reinforce or resist state power. Xu builds on earlier studies by Joseph Alter, John Donohue, and Douglas Wile, noting that the historical role of Qigong in China extends beyond physical health into political and cultural arenas.
The article engages with Michel Foucault’s concept of biopolitics, wherein the body becomes a site of power contestation. The state’s regulation of Qigong, Xu argues, reflects an attempt to discipline the body and integrate it into the broader political apparatus. This is particularly evident in the state’s response to spontaneous Qigong movements, which have at times been perceived as challenges to state authority.
The Political Struggle Over Qigong
A central theme in Xu’s work is the ideological struggle over Qigong between state authorities and grassroots practitioners. He argues that Qigong practitioners use bodily practices to assert autonomy, defying governmental efforts to regulate personal and collective behavior. The Chinese state, in turn, seeks to control these practices by imposing scientific frameworks that align with official ideologies.
Xu draws on the work of Thomas Ots and Nancy Chen to argue that Qigong provides a "new space of private experience" that challenges state control. This is particularly true of spontaneous Qigong (zifa donggong), which allows practitioners to express emotions and experiences that might otherwise be repressed. The state’s suppression of such practices, Xu asserts, reveals an underlying fear of bodily expressions that fall outside the state’s ideological boundaries.
The Scientific vs. Metaphysical Discourse
Another key argument in Xu’s article is the tension between scientific and metaphysical explanations of Qigong. The Chinese government has historically attempted to incorporate Qigong into "legitimate" scientific discourse, framing it as a medical practice rather than a spiritual or mystical pursuit. This aligns with a broader pattern in Chinese modernity, where traditional practices are often repackaged to fit within state-sanctioned narratives.
Xu traces the origins of this scientific framing to figures such as Liu Guizhen, who in the 1950s promoted Qigong as a medical therapy. However, as Qigong’s popularity grew in the 1980s and 1990s, so did claims about its supernatural properties. These "extraordinary" claims—such as telekinesis, extrasensory perception, and miraculous healing—challenged the state’s authority over scientific knowledge.
Xu explores how figures like Yan Xin, a well-known Qigong master, blurred the lines between science and mysticism. Yan participated in experiments at Qinghua University that sought to measure Qigong’s effects on biological systems. While some scientists embraced these studies, others dismissed them as pseudoscience. This debate, Xu argues, reflects a deeper epistemological struggle over what constitutes "truth" in contemporary China.
The Role of the Body in Chinese Political Culture
Xu’s analysis extends beyond Qigong to examine broader cultural attitudes toward the body in Chinese political history. He contrasts the Confucian body, disciplined by social rituals, with the Daoist body, which seeks harmony with natural forces. The Maoist era, he argues, introduced a new paradigm: the collectivized body, where individual desires were subordinated to the state’s revolutionary goals.
In this context, Qigong represents a return to a more individualized conception of the body, one that resists state-imposed collectivism. Xu suggests that this shift is symptomatic of broader socio-political changes in post-Mao China, where market reforms and increased personal freedoms have challenged traditional forms of state control.
Qigong as a Cultural and Global Phenomenon
In addition to its significance within China, Xu also briefly touches on Qigong’s increasing global influence. He notes that Western interest in Qigong has grown, particularly in relation to its potential health benefits. Qigong has been integrated into alternative medicine practices, and some studies suggest that it may contribute to stress reduction and overall well-being.
Xu suggests that Qigong’s global spread introduces new challenges and opportunities. While its exportation may help preserve traditional knowledge, it also subjects Qigong to reinterpretation through Western frameworks, often stripping it of its philosophical and cultural roots. He argues that this process of globalization mirrors historical patterns where Chinese practices, such as acupuncture, were initially dismissed by Western medicine but later integrated into modern healthcare under different terms.
Furthermore, Xu notes that Qigong has become an important medium for cultural diplomacy. In recent years, Chinese cultural institutions have promoted Qigong as part of China’s soft power strategy, presenting it as an emblem of traditional wisdom and health cultivation. This institutional promotion of Qigong, however, contrasts with the government’s historical ambivalence and at times direct opposition to uncontrolled grassroots Qigong movements.
The Influence of Modern Technology on Qigong
Another dimension of Qigong’s contemporary development is its interaction with modern technology. Xu briefly mentions how digital media and online platforms have transformed the way Qigong is practiced and transmitted. The proliferation of online Qigong courses, YouTube tutorials, and social media communities has allowed practitioners to share knowledge across national and ideological boundaries. This digital dissemination has made Qigong more accessible but has also led to fragmentation, with different schools and interpretations proliferating beyond centralized control.
This shift, Xu argues, represents both a democratization of Qigong practice and a challenge to traditional authority. Historically, Qigong knowledge was transmitted through direct master-student relationships within defined lineages. The advent of online instruction disrupts this structure, making Qigong available to a broader audience while simultaneously raising concerns about authenticity and proper instruction.
The Future of Qigong
Xu concludes by reflecting on the future of Qigong in China. He notes that despite government efforts to regulate it, Qigong continues to evolve in response to social and political changes. While some schools of Qigong have aligned themselves with scientific medicine, others remain deeply rooted in spiritual and esoteric traditions. This ongoing tension, he argues, ensures that Qigong will remain a contested space within Chinese cultural politics.
Conclusion
Jian Xu’s Body, Discourse, and the Cultural Politics of Contemporary Chinese Qigong is an insightful and well-researched examination of Qigong’s evolving role in Chinese society. By framing Qigong as a contested space of political and epistemological struggle, Xu highlights its significance beyond mere physical practice. His analysis of Qigong’s scientific/mystical discourse, its shifting conceptions of the body in China, and its emerging role in global and digital contexts make this a foundational text for anyone interested in the intersection of culture, politics, and health in modern China.
Reference
Xu, J. (1999). Body, Discourse, and the Cultural Politics of Contemporary Chinese Qigong. The Journal of Asian Studies, 58(4), 961-991
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